Encodings
How text and binary become bytes: Base64, URL encoding, UTF-8.
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Base64 encoding
What Base64 is, why it exists, how it works, and the cases where it is the wrong tool.
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URL encoding (percent-encoding)
Why spaces and symbols in a URL get turned into %20 and friends, and the difference between query and path encoding.
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UTF-8 and character sets
Why 'one character = one byte' is wrong, what code points are, and how UTF-8 became the default for the web.